France

During the fall 1998 ISC meeting France confirmed that the Institut National de Recherches Pedagogiques (INRP) would house the program and fund the initial phase. The ministry of education supports the INRP. Jacques Colomb, director of the Department of "Didactiques des Disciplines" at the INRP, will serve as national coordinator. Antoine Bodin, a university professor and member of the BesanÁon Rectorat, will act as project manager.

While the INRP will fund the initial phase of the program, they estimate that it will cost about 300 000 FF a year to operate SAW in France. Together with the other four European countries they plan to submit a proposal to the European Union to cover the bulk of the costs of SAW.

Because it was not known until November 1998 whether France could participate in the program, it has not had a chance to begin the mini-pilot. But because Antoine had already spoken to potential schools about the program, it was easy for him to identify three schools, one for each grade level, that will start collecting student work once they return from their winter break in February. The schools are located in the Franche-ComtÈ region, where all the schools will be localized.

Technology

SAW ties in with government initiatives. The local governments will be responsible for providing equipment to schools and France Telecom will give Internet access to all teachers. Developing the expertise for interactive communication technology is a priority in education. So while schools, and the selected ones, should have all the up-to-date equipment and connections, the technical assistance center, and the research institutions will not get any government support to update their equipment.

Educational System

Introduction

The French system of education is a centralized system, with responsibility for most operational, managerial, and policy functions resting with the central Ministry of Education. In recent years, the French government has taken action to support the expansion of participation in upper secondary education, striving to ensure that 80 percent of students complete a lycÈe (either academic or vocational upper secondary school) by the year 2000.

Structure of Schooling

Attendance at school is compulsory in France for children from age 6 to age 16. The general structure of primary and secondary education is as follows:

• Five years of primary education beginning at age 6, including two years in the cycle des apprentissages fondamentaux and three years in the cycle des approfondissements. In addition, most French children between the ages of 2 and 5 - about 85 percent (Bonnet) - attend non-compulsory preschool programs prior to commencing their primary education.
• Four years of lower secondary school at the collËge; the first two years are called the sixiËme and cinquiËme and together are known as the observation cycle (cycle d'observation); the second two years at collËge - the quatriËme and troisiËme - are called the orientation and guidance cycle (cycle d'orientation). Students who complete collËge may choose to sit for brevet diploma; award of the diploma is based on continuous assessment and written papers in different subject areas. Though the diploma is not compulsory, most students choose to take it.
• Three years of upper secondary school at the lycÈe, known as seconde, premiËre, and terminale. The lycÈe prepares students for a baccalaurÈat examination and, potentially, tertiary education. Students may attend either a lycÈe d'enseignement gÈnÈral et technique (general and technical lycÈe) or a lycÈe professionel (vocational lycÈe). In 1995, approximately 70 percent of upper secondary students attended a lycÈe d'enseignement gÈnÈral et technique and 30 percent attended a lycÈe professionel. According to the criteria applied by the OECD, in 1992, about 46 percent of upper secondary students were pursuing general (academic) programs, while 54 percent were pursuing vocational education programs (OECD, p.138).

In recent years, the lycÈe system has expanded to include a wider range of educational programs in order to include more students. The French government in 1985 declared that, by the year 2000, 80 percent of students must complete the lycÈe (the rate was about 30 percent in the mid 1980's). At the same time, a baccalaurÈat professionel (vocational baccalaureate) was established parallel to the general baccalaureate and the technical baccalaureate in order "to enhance the quality of vocational education and provide better employment opportunities" (Assefa, p. 29).

School Governance and Finance

Education is a centralized activity in France. The Ministry of Education - the largest state agency - administers the system through a system of 28 acadÈmies, regional education departments representing the Ministry. However, some responsibilities are increasingly devolved to the local level.

Governance. The Ministry of Education's "control over educational matters is almost total" (Husen & Postlethwaite, p.2381). The Ministry's responsibilities include certifying and employing teachers, adopting curricula and syllabi, maintaining the baccalaureate system, and setting educational policy and regulating educational practice. This centralized system of governance is carried out through the 28 acadÈmies. The acadÈmies are directed by recteurs (senior academics) who are "responsible for the management of primary and secondary schools and for the enforcement of national regulations within the academy" (Husen & Postlethwaite, p.2382). The recteurs are, in turn, represented by directors of education (inspecteurs d'acadÈmie) in each French dÈpartement; the academic inspector is responsible for supervising primary and parts of secondary education. Elected local governments are responsible for school construction and the maintenance of school buildings.

Finance. In keeping with the centralized educational system, about 75 percent of funds to support primary and secondary education in France come from the central government. The remaining 25 percent are split more or less equally between regional and local sources. (OECD, p.117).

Curriculum

The curriculum taught in French schools is established and overseen by the Ministry of Education. The curriculum - including the number of hours to be spent learning specific subject areas - is delineated for each year of schooling and, at the lycÈe, for each type of educational program.

The curriculum for primary school emphasizes basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. In addition, "close to half of the time is devoted to activities which promote the development of observation, reasoning, imagination, and physical abilities in children" (Assefa, p.2).

Curriculum for students at the collËge differs for the cycle d'observation and the cycle d'orientation. The subjects included are essentially the same - French, math, physical and natural sciences, foreign language, history and geography (and economics and civics for students in the cycle d'observation), manual and technical subjects, art and music, and physical education. Students in the cycle d'orientation also select one elective course from a variety of choices.

At the general and technical lycÈe, the first year (seconde) offers an essentially uniform (differing only according to elective courses selected by the student) curriculum to all students, thereby discouraging premature streaming of students. All students complete specified courses in the core disciplines of French, mathematics, history and geography, foreign language, natural sciences, physics, and sports. Students also select from a range of "compulsory options" and "elective" courses. Students then continue to the last two years of lycÈe to study for an academic baccalaureate (baccalaurÈat gÈnÈral), a technical baccalaureate (baccalaurÈat technique), or a vocational baccalaureate (baccalaurÈat professionel). The types of baccalaureates are further divided by focus of study (e.g., literature and art, economics and social sciences, mathematics and science, technical, and business, to list a few). The curriculum is tailored to the specific baccalaureate sought.

Standards for Student Performance and Gateways to Promotion and Higher Education

Promotion. Promotion from primary school to collËge is automatic: about 96 percent of students who have completed primary school enroll in the cycle d'observation, with the other 4 percent enrolling in special schools for children with disabilities. Promotion within the cycle d'observation (from sixiËme to cinquiËme) and within the cycle d'orientation (from quatriËme to troisiËme) is also automatic. However, promotion from the cycle d'observation to the cycle d'orientation is less automatic, and teachers' recommendations for students' advancement are the most important criteria upon which promotion decisions are made. The same holds for promotion from collËge to lycÈe. However, despite the fact that promotion to the lycÈe is not automatic, most students who want to attend lycÈe may do so.

Examinations. No examinations are required for promotion from year to year or from one level of schooling to the next. Most French students participate in a national examination, the brevet des collËges, administered to students at the end of collËge (troisiËme). This exam, which is not compulsory, is not used to sort students in any way, but rather is intended to provide information about educational progress at the lower secondary level. Education at the lycÈe culminates with the baccalaurÈat examination, for which students spend the last two years of lycÈe preparing. There is a distinct examination for each specific course of study (e.g., literature and art, mathematics and natural sciences, business). The baccalaurÈat examinations are administered one time each year by the acadÈmie under the auspices of the Ministry of Education. Examination questions "are developed by special committees following instructions laid down by the Ministry of Education" (Assefa, p.18). Approximately 70 to 75 percent of students who sit for the baccalaurÈat pass it each year (Bonnet).

Access to Higher Education. In order to gain admission to a university, a student must have successfully completed a baccalaurÈat. "By law, all baccalaurÈats are deemed to be equal and give access to university education even though fields such as science, engineering and [until recently] medicine are reserved for holders of a scientific baccalaurÈat" (Assefa, p.14). Universities are not allowed to set any other requirements for admission. Therefore, passing a baccalaurÈat examination is the one and only crucial hurdle to entering university. Adult students who have not passed a baccalaurÈat may also qualify for university admission by passing a university entrance exam. France also operates a highly selective system of higher education (both public and private institutions) known as the Grandes Ecoles. Students who wish to attend these institutions must sit for a series of academically demanding competitive examinations (Bonnet).

Teacher Training and Certification

Candidates for teacher training programs must possess an initial university degree. Since 1991, teacher training has been conducted within an institute universitaire de formation des maÓtres (IUFM). The training program lasts two years, the first spent studying mostly a subject matter, and the second spent in acquiring practical, school-based experience through student teaching. Teacher candidates sit for teacher recruitment competitive examinations after the first year and become trainee civil servants if they pass. Overall, teacher candidates must complete at least four years of post-secondary education in order to become certified teachers. However, some teachers of upper secondary school - those known as professeurs agrÈgÈs - complete a four-year course of study prior to preparing for the competitive recruitment examination. (Husen & Postlethwaite, p.2383; U.S. Department of Education, 1993, pp.8-9).

References

General Reference

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (1995). Education at a glance: OECD indicators. Paris: Author.

Husen, T., & Postlethwaite, N. (Eds.) (1994). The international encyclopedia of education (Second edition). Oxford: Pergamon Press.

U.S. Department of Education (1993). Teacher training abroad: New realities. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

References - France

Assefa, A.M. (1988). France: A study of the educational system of France and a guide to the academic placement of students in educational institutions of the United States. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers.

Bonnet, G. (April 26, 1996). Letter to Alison Reeve, Pelavin Research Institute. Unpublished.